Learn The Arabic Language - The Alphabet

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The Arabic sources, as long as they do not attribute the invention of the Arabic script to Adam or Ishmael, tell us that the script had been introduced either from South Arabia region or from Mesopotamia (Iraq). Ibn Al-Nadim, for example, said that the people of Al-Hira, the capital of the Lakhmid dynasty in the Euphrates valley, used a form of Syriac cursive script which had developed into the Arabic alphabet.

According to Siibawayh, the Arabic Alphabet is made of 29 letters, including 3 long vowels. He put them in the following order starting with the laryngeal and ending with labial, representing the place of articulation along the vocal tract.

  Theory of Syriac origin has now been abandoned by most scholars. It seems much more likely to him that the Arabic alphabet is derived from a type of cursive Nabataean in Petra, Jordan. In the Aramaic script, from which Nabataean writing ultimately derived, there are no ligatures between letters. But in the cursive forms of the Nabataean script most of the features that characterize the Arabic script already appear. Versteegh adds that the elaboration of an Arabic script for texts in Arabic took place as early as the second century CE. This would mean that the development of the Arabic script as it is used in pre-Islamic inscriptions occurred largely independently from the later developments in Nabataean epigraphic script. The most important internal development in Arabic script is the systematic elaboration of connections between letters within the word, and the system of different forms of the letters according to their position within the word. 

Quoted Of : A Short Reference  for Arabic Syntactic, Morphological & Phonological Rules for Novice & Intermediate Levels of Proficiency: Mohammed Jiyad /Spring  2006

How To Read And Spell The Arabic Alphabet Correctly 

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Arabic

Letters of the Alphabet

Initial	Medial	Final	Alone	Romanization
ا	ﺎ	ﺎ	ا	omit (see Note 1)
ﺑ	ﺒ	ﺐ	ﺏ	b
ﺗ	ﺘ	ﺖ	ﺕ	t
ﺛ	ﺜ	ﺚ	ﺙ	th
ﺟ	ﺠ	ﺞ	ﺝ	j
ﺣ	ﺤ	ﺢ	ﺡ	ḥ
ﺧ	ﺨ	ﺦ	ﺥ	kh
ﺩ	ﺪ	ﺪ	ﺩ	d
ﺫ	ﺬ	ﺬ	ﺫ	dh
ﺭ	ﺮ	ﺮ	ﺭ	r
ﺯ	ﺰ	ﺰ	ﺯ	z
ﺳ	ﺴ	ﺲ	ﺱ	s
ﺷ	ﺸ	ﺶ	ﺵ	sh
ﺻ	ﺼ	ﺺ	ﺹ	ṣ
ﺿ	ﻀ	ﺾ	ﺽ	ḍ
ﻃ	ﻄ	ﻂ	ﻁ	ṭ
ﻇ	ﻈ	ﻆ	ﻅ	ẓ
ﻋ	ﻌ	ﻊ	ﻉ	‘ (ayn)
ﻏ	ﻐ	ﻎ	ﻍ	gh
ﻓ	ﻔ	ﻒ	ﻑ	f (see Note 2)
ﻗ	ﻘ	ﻖ	ﻕ	q (see Note 2)
ﻛ	ﻜ	ﻚ	ﻙ	k
ﻟ	ﻠ	ﻞ	ﻝ	l
ﻣ	ﻤ	ﻢ	ﻡ	m
ﻧ	ﻨ	ﻦ	ﻥ	n
ﻫ	ﻬ	ـة ، ﻪ	ة ، ه	h (see Note 3)
ﻭ	ﻮ	ﻮ	ﻭ	w
ﻳ	ﻴ	ي	ي	y

Vowels and Diphthongs

َ	a	َا	ā (see Rule 5)	ِ ﻯ	ī
ُ	u	ﻯ َ	á (see Rule 6(a))	َ ﻭْ	aw
ِ	i	ُ ﻭ	ū	ﻯْ َ	ay

Letters Representing Non-Arabic Consonants

This list is not exhaustive.  It should be noted that a letter in this group may have more than one phonetic value, depending on the country or area where it is used, and that the Romanization will vary accordingly.

گ	g	چ	ch	ڤ	v
ڴ	ñ	چ	zh	ۋ	v
پ	p	ژ	zh	ڥ	v

Notes

1.         For the use of alif to support hamzah, see rule 2.  For the romanization of hamzahby the consonantal sign ’ (alif), see rule 8(a).  For other orthographic uses of alifsee rules 3-5.

2.         The Maghribī variations ڢ and ڧ are romanized f and q respectively.

3.         ة in a word in the construct state is romanized t.  See rule 7(b).

RULES OF APPLICATION

Arabic Letters Romanized in Different Ways Depending on Their Context

1.         As indicated in the table, ﻭ andيmay represent:

(a)   The consonants romanized w and y, respectively.

                                    waḍ‘                                          وضع

                                    ‘iwaḍ                                         عوض              

                                    dalw                                          دلو

                                    yad                                           يد

                                    ḥiyal                                         حيل

                                    ṭahy                                          طهي

(b)   The long vowels romanized ū, ī, and ā respectively.

                                    ūlá                                            أولى

                                    ṣūrah                                        صورة

                                    dhū                                           ذو

                                    īmān                                         إيمان

                                    jīl                                              جيل

                                    fī                                              في

                                    kitāb                                         كتاب

                                    saḥāb                                       سحاب

                                    jumān                                       جمان

See also rules 11(a) and 11(b)(1-2).

(c)   The diphthongs romanized aw and ay, respectively.

                                    awj                                           أوج

                                    nawm                                        نوم

                                    law                                           لو

                                    aysar                                        أيسر

                                    shaykh                                      شيخ

                                    ‘aynay                                       عيني

See also rules 11(a)(2) and 11(b)(3).

2.         ا (alif), و and ى when used to support ء (hamzah) are not represented in romanization.  See rule 8(a).

3.         ا (alif) when used to support waṣlah ( ٱ ) and maddah ( آ ) is not represented in romanization.  See rules 9 and 10.

4.         ا (alif) and وwhen used as orthographic signs without phonetic significance are not represented in romanization.

                                    fa‘alū                                        فعلوا

                                    ulā’ika                                       أولائك

                                    ūqīyah                                   أوقية        

            See also rule 12 and examples cited in rules 23-26.         

5.         ا (alif) is used to represent the long vowel romanized ā, as indicated in the table.

                                    fā‘il                                           فاعل

                                    riḍā                                           رضا

            This alif, when medial, is sometimes omitted in Arabic; it is always indicated in romanization.  See rule 19.

6.         Final ىappears in the following special cases:

(a)   As ﻯ َ (alif maqṣūrah) used in place of َا to represent the long vowel romanized ā.

                                    ḥattá                                         حتَّى

                                    maḍá                                        مضَى

                                    kubrá                                        كبرَى

                                    Yaḥyá                                       يحيَى

                                    musammá                                 مسمَّى

                                    Muṣṭafá                                    مصطفَى

(b)   As ِ ﻯّ in nouns and adjectives of the form fā‘īl which are derived from defective roots.  This ending is romanized ī, not īy, without regard to the presence of  ّ (shaddah).  See rule 11(b)(2).

                                    Raḍī al-Dīn                                  رضي الدين

            Compare the fa‘īl form of the same root  الرضى[without shaddah] al-Raḍī.

(c)   As ِ ﻯّ in the relative adjective (nisbah).  The ending, like (b) above, is romanized ī, not īy.

                                    al-Miṣrī                                      المصرِيّ

            Compareالمصرِيّة  al-Miṣrīyah and see rule 11(b)(1).

7.         ة (tā’ marbūṭah)

(a)     When the noun or adjective ending in ة is indefinite, or is preceded by the definite article, ة is romanized h.  The ة in such positions is often replaced by ه.

                                    ṣalāh                                         صلاة

                                    al-Risālah al-bahīyah                  الرسالة البهية

                                    mir’āh                                       مرآة

                                    Urjūzah fī al-ṭibb             أرجوزة فى الطب

(b)   When the word ending in ة is in the construct state [muḍāf wa-muḍāf ilayh], ة is romanized t.

                                    Wizārat al-Tarbiyah                    وزارة التربية

                                    Mir’āt al-zamān                          مرآة الزمان

(c)   When the word ending in ة is used adverbially, ة (vocalized ةً) is romanized tan.  See rule 12(b).

Romanization of Arabic Orthographic Symbols Other than Letters and Vowel Signs

The signs listed below are frequently omitted from unvocalized Arabic writing and printing; their presence or absence must then be inferred.  They are represented in romanization according to the following rules:

8.         ء (hamzah)

(a)   In initial position, whether at the beginning of a word, following a prefixed preposition or conjunction, or following the definite article, ء is not represented in romanization.  When medial or final, ء is romanized as ’ (alif).

                                    asad                                         أسد

                                    uns                                           أنس

                                    idhā                                          إذا

                                    mas’alah                                   مسألة

                                    mu’tamar                                   مؤتمر

                                    dā’im                                        دائم

                                    mala’a                                       ملأ

                                    khaṭi’a                                       خطئ

(b)     ء, when replaced by the sign  (waṣlah) and then known as hamzat al-waṣl, is not represented in romanization.  See rule 9 below.

9.           (waṣlah), like initial ء, is not represented in romanization.  See also rule 8(b) above.  When the alifwhich supports waṣlah belongs to the article ال, the initial vowel of the article is romanized a.  See rule 17(b).  In other words, beginning with hamzat al-waṣl, the initial vowel is romanized i.

                                    Riḥlat Ibn Jubayr                        رحلة ٱبن جبير

                                    al-istidrāk                                  الإستدراك 

                                    kutub iqtanatʹhā                         كتب ٱقتنتها

                                    bi-ihtimām ‘Abd al-Majīd             باهتمام عبد ٱلمجيد

10.        ˜ (maddah)

(a)   Initial آ is romanized ā.

                                    ālah                                          آلة

                                    Kullīyat al-Ādāb                         كلية الآداب

(b)   Medial آ, when it represents the phonetic combination ’ā, is so romanized.

                                    ta’ālīf                                        تآليف

                                    ma’āthir                                     مآثر

(c)   ˜ is otherwise not represented in romanization.

                                    khulafā’                                     خلفآء

11.        ّ (shaddahor tashdīd)

(a)   Over و:

(1)     ُوّ, representing the combination of long vowel plus consonant, is romanized ūw.

                                    ‘adūw                                       عدُوّ

                                    qūwah                                       قُوّة

            See also rule 1(b).

(2)     َوّ, representing the combination of diphthong plus consonant, is romanized aww.

                                    Shawwāl                                   شَوّال

                                    ṣawwara                                    صَوّر

                                    jaww                                         جوّ

            See also rule 1(c).

(b)     Over ى:

(1)   Medial ِىّ, representing the combination of long vowel plus consonant, is romanized īy.

                                    al-Miṣrīyah                                المصرِيّة

See also rule 1(b).

(2)   Final ِىّ is romanized ī.  See rules 6(b) and 6(c).

(3)     Medial and final َىّ, representing the combination of diphthong plus consonant, is romanized ayy.

                                    ayyām                                      أَيّام

                                    sayyid                                       سَيّد

                                    Quṣayy                                     قصَيّ

See also rule 1(c).

(c)   Over other letters, ّ is represented in romanization by doubling the letter or digraph concerned.

                                    al-Ghazzī                                  الغزّيّ

                                    al-Kashshāf                               الكشّاف

12.        Tanwīnmay take the written formٌ,ً (ًا), or ٍ, romanized un, an, and in, respectively.  Tanwīn is normally disregarded in romanization, however.  It is indicated in the following cases:

(a)   When it occurs in indefinite nouns derived from defective roots.

                                    qāḍin                                        قاضٍ

                                    ma‘nan                                      معنىً

(b)   When it indicates the adverbial use of a noun or adjective.

                                    ṭab‘an                                       طبعًا

                                    faj’atan                                      فجأةً

                                    al-Mushtarik waḍ‘an                   المشترك وضعاً

                                       wa-al-muftariq ṣuq‘an              والمفترق صقعاً

Grammatical Structure as It Affects Romanization

13.        Final inflections of verbs are retained in romanization, except in pause. represent

                                    man waliya Miṣr                         من ولي مصر

                                    ma‘rifat mā yajibu la-hum            معرفة ما يجب لهم

                                    ṣallá Allāh ‘alayhi wa-sallam       صلى الله عليه وسلم

                                    al-Lu’lu’ al-maknūn fī ḥukm         اللؤلؤ المكنون فى حكم

                                       al-ikhbār ‘ammā sa-yakūn        الإخبار عما سيكون

14.        Final inflections of nouns and adjectives:

(a)   Vocalic endings are not represented in romanization, except preceding pronominal suffixes, and except when the text being romanized is in verse.

                                    uṣūluhā al-nafsīyah wa-ṭuruq       أصولها النفسية وطرق تدريسها

                                       tadrīsihā                                

                                    ilá yawminā hādhā                     الى يومنا هذا

(b)   Tanwīnis not represented in romanization, except as specified in rule 12.

(c)   ة (tā’ marbūṭah) is romanized h or t as specified in rule 7.

(d)   For the romanization of the relative adjective (nisbah) see rule 6(c).

15.        Pronouns, pronominal suffixes, and demonstratives:

(a)   Vocalic endings are retained in romanization.

                                    anā wa-anta                               انا وانت

                                    hādhihi al-ḥāl                             هذه الحال

                                    mu’allafātuhu wa-shurūḥuhā        مؤلفاته وشروحها

(b)   At the close of a phrase or sentence, the ending is romanized in its pausal form.

ḥayātuhu wa-‘aṣruh                    حياته وعصره

Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm, afkāruh,           توفيق الحكيم، أفكاره، آثاره

   āthāruh         

16.        Prepositions and conjunctions:

(a)   Final vowels of separable prepositions and conjunctions are retained in romanization.

                                    anna                                         أن

                                    annahu                                      أنه

                                    bayna yadayhi                           بين يديه

                        Note the special cases: مما mimmā, ممن mimman.

(b)   Inseparable prepositions, conjunctions, and other prefixes are connected with what follows by a hyphen.

                                    bi-hi                                          به

                                    wa-ma‘ahu                                 ومعه

                                    lā-silkī                                       لاسلكي

17.        The definite article:

(a)   The romanized form al is connected with the following word by a hyphen.

                                    al-kitāb al-thānī                          الكتاب الثاني                             

                                    al-ittiḥād                                    الإتحاد

                                    al-aṣl                                        الأصل

                                    al-āthār                                     الآثار

(b)   When ال is initial in the word, and when it follows an inseparable preposition or conjunction, it is always romanized alregardless of whether the preceding word, as romanized, ends in a vowel or a consonant.

                                    ilá al-ān                                     الى الآن

                                    Abū al-Wafā’                              ابو الوفاء

                                    Maktabat al-Nahḍah al-Miṣrīyah مكتبة النهضة المصرية

                                    bi-al-tamām wa-al-kamāl بالتمام والكمال

Note the exceptional treatment of the preposition لfollowed by the article:

                                    lil-Shirbīnī                                  للشربيني

See also rule 23.

(c)   The ل of the article is always romanized l, whether it is followed by a “sun letter” or not, i.e., regardless of whether or not it is assimilated in pronunciation to the initial consonant of the word to which it is attached.

                                    al-ḥurūf al-abjadīyah                   الحروف الأبجدية

                                    Abū al-Layth al-Samarqandī        ابو الليث السمرقندي

Orthography of Arabic in Romanization

18.        Capitalization:

(a)   Rules for the capitalization of English are followed, except that the definite article al is given in lower case in all positions.

(b)   Diacritics are used with both upper and lower case letters.

                                    al-Ījī                                          الايجي

                                    al-Ālūsī                                     الآلوسي

19.        The macron or the acute accent, as appropriate, is used to indicate all long vowels, including those which in Arabic script are written defectively.  The macron or the acute accent, as the case may be, is retained over final long vowels which are shortened in pronunciation before hamzat al-waṣl.

                                    Ibrāhīm                                     إبراهيم ، إبرهيم

                                    Dā’ūd                                        داؤود ، داؤد

                                    Abū al-Ḥasan                             ابو الحسن

                                    ru’ūs                                         رؤوس

                                    dhālika                                      ذلك

                                    ‘alá al-‘ayn                                 على العين

20.        The hyphen is used:

(a)   To connect the definite article al with the word to which it is attached.  See rule 17(a).

(b)   Between an inseparable prefix and what follows.  See rules 16(b) and 17(b) above.

(c)   Between bin and the following element in personal names when they are written in Arabic as a single word.  See rule 25.

21.        The prime ( ʹ ) is used:

(a)   To separate two letters representing two distinct consonantal sounds, when the combination might otherwise be read as a digraph.

                                    Adʹham                                     أدهم

                                    akramatʹhā                                أكرمتها

(b)     To mark the use of a letter in its final form when it occurs in the middle of a word.

                                    Qal‘ahʹjī                                     ‌قلعه‌جى

                                    Shaykhʹzādah                            شيخ زاده

22.        As in the case of romanization from other languages, foreign words which occur in an Arabic context and are written in Arabic letters are romanized according to the rules for romanizing Arabic.

                        Jārmānūs (not Germanos norGermanus) جارمانوس       

                        Lūrd Ghrānfīl (not Lord Granville)             لورد غرانفيل

                        Īsāghūjī (notIsagoge)                                         ايساغوجي

            For short vowels not indicated in the Arabic, the Arabic vowel nearest to the original pronunciation is supplied.

                        Gharsiyā Khayin (not García Jaén)                      غرسيا خين

Examples of Irregular Arabic Orthography

23.        Note the romanization of الله, alone and in combination.

                                    Allāh                                         الله

                                    billāh                                          

                                    lillāh                                         

                                    bismillāh                                   بسم الله

                                    al-Mustanṣir billāh                       

24.        Note the romanization of the following personal names:

                                    Ṭāhā                                         طه

                                    Yāsīn                                        يس ، يسن

                                    ‘Amr                                         عمرو

                                    Bahjat                                       بهجت ، بهجة

25.        ابن and بن are both romanized ibn in all positions.

                        Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī al-Rabī‘    احمد بن محمد بن ابي الربيع

                        SharḥIbn ‘Aqīl ‘alá Alfīyat Ibn Mālik        شرح ابن عقيل على الفية ابن مالك

            Exception is made in the case of modern names, typically North African, in which the element بن is pronounced bin.

                                    Bin Khiddah                               بن خده

                                    Bin-‘Abd Allāh                            بنعبد الله

26.        Note the anomalous spelling مائة, romanized mi’ah.